BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF UNIVERSAL JURISDICTION IN CONTEMPORARY CRIMINAL LAW
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Published:
Nov 27, 2020
Keywords:
univerzalna jurisdikcija in absentia, princip supsidijariteta, sham postupak
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Abstract
Universal jurisdiction is resorted to when a territorial state or another state with jurisdictional priority based on the nationalities of perpetrator and victim will not or can not act in order to prevent international crimes stricto sensu (core crimes) or when there is no reaction of international judicial institutions in this respect. Having broad powers in terms of specific links to a prosecuting state and often in terms of perpetrator’s presence in a prosecuting state, universal jurisdiction successfully fills these gaps, and takes part in the global effort of the international community to prevent the impunity of the perpetrators of core crimes.
Using a comparative method (German, Spanish and Belgian legislation), we endeavored to point out the basic legal features of the matter, thus providing a basis for discussion in Serbian criminal law de lege lata and de lege ferenda. Major issues standing out in this context are universal jurisdiction in absentia, principle of subsidiarity and sham process.
Even though universal jurisdiction, in its genuine form, appears only in core crimes, many important and recent issues in this field have been related to treaty-based crimes, as well as to ordinary crimes, and to certain extent they have also been touched upon in this paper.
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References
Literatura
Ambos, K. 2007a. International Core Crimes, Universal Jurisdiction and § 153f of the German Criminal Procedure Code: a Commentary on the Decisions of the Federal Prosecutor General and the Stuttgart Higher Regional Court in the Abu Ghraib/ Rumsfeld Case. Criminal Law Forum, 18(1), pp. 43-58.
Ambos, K. 2007b. Prosecuting International Crimes at the National and International Level: Between Justice and Realpolitik. In: Kaleck, W., Ratner, M., Singelnstein,T. & Weiss, P. (eds.), International Prosecution of Human Rights Crimes. Berlin/ Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 55-68.
Ambos, K. 2016. Treatise on International Criminal Law: Volume III. Oxford University Press.
Ambos, K. 2011. Judicial Creativity at the Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Is There a Crime of Terrorism under International Law?. Leiden Journal of International Law, 24, pp. 655-675.
Baker, R. B. 2009. Universal Jurisdiction and the Case of Belgium: A Critical Assessment. ILSA JICL, 16(1), pp. 141-167.
Beken, V., Vermeulen, G. & Ongena, T. 2002. Belgium, Concurrent National and International Criminal Jurisdiction and the Principle ‘ne bis in idem’. RIDP, 73(3– 4), pp. 811– 848. Dostupno na: https://www.cairn.info/revue-internationale-de-droit-penal- 2002-3-page-811.htm.
Blanco Cordero, I. 2008. Universal jurisdiction: General report. Revue internationale de droit pénal, 79(1), pp. 59-100. Dostupno na : https://doi.org/10.3917/ridp.791.0059. Colangelo, A. 2006. The Legal Limits of Universal Jurisdiction. Virginia Journal of International Law, 47(1), pp. 149-198.
De la Cuesta, J. 2002. Concurrent national and international criminal jurisdiction and the principle ‘ne bis in idem’: General report. Revue internationale de droit pénal, 73(3), pp. 707-736. Dostupno na: https://doi.org/10.3917/ridp.733.0707.
Fernández, R.A.A. 2014. The 2014 Reform of Universal Jurisdiction from All to Nothing. Zeitschrift fur Internationale Strafrechts Dogmatik, 13, pp. 717-727. Dostupno na: http://zis-online.com/dat/artikel/2014_13_883.pdf.
Inazumi, M. 2005. Universal jurisdiction in modern international law: expansion of national jurisdiction for prosecuting serious crimes under international law. Intersentia nv. Jeßberger, F., Kaleck, W. & Schueller, A. 2010. Concurring Criminal Jurisdictions under International Law. In: Bergsmo, M. (ed.), Complementarity and the Exercise of Universal Jurisdiction for Core International Crimes. Oslo: TOAEP, pp. 233-245.
Josipović, I. 2017. Pravni i politički aspekti spora Hrvatske i Srbije o nadležnosti za ratne zločine. Hrvatski ljetopis za kaznene znanosti i praksu, 24(1), pp. 15-58.
Kaleck, W. & Schüller, A. 2019. Universal Jurisdiction Gains New Momentum. FICHL Policy Brief Series, 96.
Kaleck, W. 2009. From Pinochet to Rumsfeld: Universal Jurisdiction in Europe 1998-2008. Michigan Journal of Internationla Law, 30(3), pp. 927-980. Dostupno na: https:// repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1137&context=mjil.
Kluwen, T. 2017. Universal Jurisdiction in Absentia Before Domestic Courts Prosecuting International Crimes: A Suitable Weapon to Fight Impunity?. Goettingen Journal of International Law, 8 (1), pp. 7-38.
Kreß, C. 2006. Universal Jurisdiction over International Crimes and the Institut de Droit international. Journal of International Criminal Justice, 4(3), pp. 561-585. Dostupno na: https://www.legal-tools.org/doc/44a03d/pdf/.
Langer, M. 2011. The Diplomacy of Universal Jurisdiction: The Political Branches and the Transnational Prosecution of International Crimes. American Journal of International Law, 105(1), pp. 1-49.
Ongena, T. & Van Daele, I. 2002. Universal Jurisdiction for International Core Crimes: Recent Developments in Belgium. Leiden Journal of International Law, 15(3), pp. 687-701.
Panáková, J. 2011. Law and Politics of Universal Jurisdiction. Amsterdam Law Forum, 3(3), pp. 50-72. Dostupno na: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_ id=1927218.
Roht–Arriaza, N. 2004. Universal Jurisdiction, Steps Forward, Steps Back. Leiden Journal of International Law, 17, pp. 375-389. Dostupno na: https://repository.uchastings. edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1681&context=faculty_scholarship.
Ryngaert, C. 2010. Complementarity in Universality Cases, Legal Systemic and Legal Policy Consideration, Law. In: Bergsmo, M. (ed.), Complementarity and the Exercise of Universal Jurisdiction for Core International Crimes. Oslo: TOAEP, pp. 165-200.
Smis, S. & Van der Borght, K. 2003. Belgian law concerning the punishment of grave breaches of international humanitarian law. Insights, 8(18). Dostupno na: https:// www.asil.org/insights/volume/8/issue/18/belgian-law-concerning-punishment- grave-breaches-international.
Stojanović, Z. 2016. Univerzalni princip prostornog važenja krivičnog zakonodavstva. Revija za kriminologiju i krivično pravo, 2–3, pp. 21-38.
Zimmermann, A. 2006. Violations of Fundamental Norms of International Law and the Exercise of Universal Jurisdiction in Criminal Matters. In: Tomuschat, C. & Thovenin, JM. (eds.), The Fundamental Rules of the International Legal Order: jus Cogens and Obligations erga Omnes. Leiden: Brill | Nijhoff, pp. 335-353.
Zlatarić, B. 1979. Međunarodno krivično pravo. Zagreb.
Internet izvori
Jeßberger, F. 2007. The Principle of Universal Jurisdiction in German Criminal Law. AIDP’s XVIIIth World Congress. Dostupno na: https://www. jura. uni-hamburg. de/die- fakultaet/professuren/professur-jessberger/forschung/landesberichtjessbericht- jessberger-2007. pdf.
Jeßberger, F. 2018. Towards a ‘complementary preparedness’ approach to universal jurisdiction – recent trends and best practices in the European Union. Dostupno na: https://www.jura.uni-hamburg.de/die-fakultaet/professuren/professur-jessberger/ media-fj/media-forschung-stellungnahmen/briefing-eu-parl-2018.pdf.
Open Society Justice Initiative. 2019. Universal Jurisdiction Law and Practice in Germany. Dostupno na: https://www.justiceinitiative.org/uploads/0b3c66af-68e0-4fd3-a8e0- d938a6e2b43b/universal-jurisdiction-law-and-practice-germany.pdf.
Pravni izvori
Belgium, Law on Universal Jurisdiction, L. 5 August 2003. Dostupno na: https://casebook. icrc.org/case-study/belgium-law-universal-jurisdiction.
Belgium: Act of 1999 Concerning the Punishment of Grave Breaches of International Humanitarian Law (Genocide Act), 10 February 1999. Dostupno na: https://www. refworld.org/docid/3ae6b5934.html.
Contribution, 2016. Contribution of Spain on the topic The scope and application of the principle of universal jurisdiction, 16-05499(E). Dostupno na: https://www.un.org/ en/ga/sixth/71/universal_jurisdiction/spain_e.pdf.
Drucksache 14/ 8524, (Entwurf eines Gesetzes zur Einfûhrung des Völkerstrafgesetzbuch, 13. mart 2002). Dostupno na: https://dip21.bundestag.de/dip21/btd/14/085/1408524. pdf.
Eighteenth International Congress of Penal law (Istanbul, 20 - 27 September 2009). 2015. Revue internationale de droit pénal, 86 (1-2), pp. 421-436. Dostupno na: https:// www.cairn.info/revue-internationale-de-droit-penal-2015-1-page-421.htm.
German Criminal Code, as last amended by the Act of 19. 6. 2019. Dostupno na: https:// www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_stgb/.
German Code of Criminal Procedure, 7. April 1987. Federal Law Gazette, I, p. 1074, 1319, as last amended by Article 3 of the Act of 11 July 2019 (Federal Law Gazette, I, p. 1066). Dostupno na: https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_stpo/ englisch_stpo.html.
Institute of International Law. 2005. Universal criminal jurisdiction with regard to the crime of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes (Rezolucija Instituta za međunarodno pravo o univerzalnoj jurisdikciji u pogledu genocida, zločina protiv čovečnosti i ratnih zločina).
Izveštaj Međunarodne pravne komisije UN. 2014. The obligation to extradite or to prosecute (aut dedere aut judicare), Final Report of the International Law Commission (ICL). Dostupno na: https://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/reports/7_6_2014.pdf. Krivični zakonik, Službeni glasnik RS, br. 85/2005, 88/2005, 107/2005, 72/2009, 111/2009, 121/2012, 104/2013, 108/2014, 94/2016, 35/2019.
Loi Wet Code Penal, 18. Avril 1878. Loi contenant le Titre preliminaire du Code de procedure penale (Prethodni deo Zakona o krivičnom postupku). Konsolidovana verzija dostupna na: http://www.ejustice.just.fgov.be/cgi_loi/ change_lg.pl?language=fr&la=F&cn=1878041701&table_name=loi.
Ujedinjene nacije. Povelja Ujedinjenih nacija, 1945. Dostupno na: http://dag.un.org/ handle/11176/387355.
Povelja o osnovnim pravima Evropske unije (2007/C303/01).
Ujedinjene nacije. 1984. Konvencija UN protiv torture i drugih surovih, neljudskih i ponižavajućih kazni ili postupaka.
Völkerstrafgesetzbuch (VStGB).2002. Dostupno na: https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/ vstgb/.
Zakonik o krivičnom postupku, Službeni glasnik RS, br. 72/2011, 101/2011, 121/2012, 32/2013, 45/2013, 55/2014, 35/2019.
Zakon o organizaciji i nadležnosti državnih organa u postupku za ratne zločine, Službeni glasnik RS, br. 67/2003.
Sudska praksa
Arrest Warrant od 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium), Judgment of 14 February 2002. Dostupno na: https://www.icj-cij.org/en/case/121/judgments.
BGH 2 StR96/14, 18. mart 2015. Dostupno na: https://www.hrr-strafrecht.de/hrr/2/14/2-96 14.php.
Fond za humanitarno pravo (FHP). 2019. FND n.d. Izveštaj o suđenjima za ratne zločine u Srbiji. Beograd. Dostupno na: http://www.hlc-rdc.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/ Izvestaj-o-sudjenjima-za-ratne-zlocine-u-Srbiji.pdf.
European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights e.V. 2019. Survivors of Assad’s torture system demand justice – Criminal complaint in Sweden. Dostupno na: https://www.ecchr.eu/fileadmin/Q_As/Q_A_Sweden_EN_20190812.pdf.
International Criminal Court – ICC 02/05-01/09, Al Bashir Case. Dostupno na: https:// www.icc-cpi.int/darfur/albashir (15.7.2020).
Sharon Trial: 12 February 2003 decision of Belgian Supreme Court explained. Dostupno na: https://electronicintifada.net/content/sharon-trial-12-february-2003-decision- belgian-supreme-court-explained/4413.
Spanish Supreme Court. Guatemala Genocide Case. Presuda No. 327/2003. 25. February 2003. Dostupno na: http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/guatemala/doc/stsgtm.html Constitutional Court. 2005. Guatemala Genocide Case, Presuda No 237/2005, 26 septembar 2005. Dostupno na: https://www.tribunalconstitucional.es/ResolucionesTraduci-das/237-2005,%20of%20September%2026.pdf.
Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012, p. 422. Dostupno na: https://www.icj-cij.org/en/ case/144/judgments.
Ambos, K. 2007a. International Core Crimes, Universal Jurisdiction and § 153f of the German Criminal Procedure Code: a Commentary on the Decisions of the Federal Prosecutor General and the Stuttgart Higher Regional Court in the Abu Ghraib/ Rumsfeld Case. Criminal Law Forum, 18(1), pp. 43-58.
Ambos, K. 2007b. Prosecuting International Crimes at the National and International Level: Between Justice and Realpolitik. In: Kaleck, W., Ratner, M., Singelnstein,T. & Weiss, P. (eds.), International Prosecution of Human Rights Crimes. Berlin/ Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 55-68.
Ambos, K. 2016. Treatise on International Criminal Law: Volume III. Oxford University Press.
Ambos, K. 2011. Judicial Creativity at the Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Is There a Crime of Terrorism under International Law?. Leiden Journal of International Law, 24, pp. 655-675.
Baker, R. B. 2009. Universal Jurisdiction and the Case of Belgium: A Critical Assessment. ILSA JICL, 16(1), pp. 141-167.
Beken, V., Vermeulen, G. & Ongena, T. 2002. Belgium, Concurrent National and International Criminal Jurisdiction and the Principle ‘ne bis in idem’. RIDP, 73(3– 4), pp. 811– 848. Dostupno na: https://www.cairn.info/revue-internationale-de-droit-penal- 2002-3-page-811.htm.
Blanco Cordero, I. 2008. Universal jurisdiction: General report. Revue internationale de droit pénal, 79(1), pp. 59-100. Dostupno na : https://doi.org/10.3917/ridp.791.0059. Colangelo, A. 2006. The Legal Limits of Universal Jurisdiction. Virginia Journal of International Law, 47(1), pp. 149-198.
De la Cuesta, J. 2002. Concurrent national and international criminal jurisdiction and the principle ‘ne bis in idem’: General report. Revue internationale de droit pénal, 73(3), pp. 707-736. Dostupno na: https://doi.org/10.3917/ridp.733.0707.
Fernández, R.A.A. 2014. The 2014 Reform of Universal Jurisdiction from All to Nothing. Zeitschrift fur Internationale Strafrechts Dogmatik, 13, pp. 717-727. Dostupno na: http://zis-online.com/dat/artikel/2014_13_883.pdf.
Inazumi, M. 2005. Universal jurisdiction in modern international law: expansion of national jurisdiction for prosecuting serious crimes under international law. Intersentia nv. Jeßberger, F., Kaleck, W. & Schueller, A. 2010. Concurring Criminal Jurisdictions under International Law. In: Bergsmo, M. (ed.), Complementarity and the Exercise of Universal Jurisdiction for Core International Crimes. Oslo: TOAEP, pp. 233-245.
Josipović, I. 2017. Pravni i politički aspekti spora Hrvatske i Srbije o nadležnosti za ratne zločine. Hrvatski ljetopis za kaznene znanosti i praksu, 24(1), pp. 15-58.
Kaleck, W. & Schüller, A. 2019. Universal Jurisdiction Gains New Momentum. FICHL Policy Brief Series, 96.
Kaleck, W. 2009. From Pinochet to Rumsfeld: Universal Jurisdiction in Europe 1998-2008. Michigan Journal of Internationla Law, 30(3), pp. 927-980. Dostupno na: https:// repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1137&context=mjil.
Kluwen, T. 2017. Universal Jurisdiction in Absentia Before Domestic Courts Prosecuting International Crimes: A Suitable Weapon to Fight Impunity?. Goettingen Journal of International Law, 8 (1), pp. 7-38.
Kreß, C. 2006. Universal Jurisdiction over International Crimes and the Institut de Droit international. Journal of International Criminal Justice, 4(3), pp. 561-585. Dostupno na: https://www.legal-tools.org/doc/44a03d/pdf/.
Langer, M. 2011. The Diplomacy of Universal Jurisdiction: The Political Branches and the Transnational Prosecution of International Crimes. American Journal of International Law, 105(1), pp. 1-49.
Ongena, T. & Van Daele, I. 2002. Universal Jurisdiction for International Core Crimes: Recent Developments in Belgium. Leiden Journal of International Law, 15(3), pp. 687-701.
Panáková, J. 2011. Law and Politics of Universal Jurisdiction. Amsterdam Law Forum, 3(3), pp. 50-72. Dostupno na: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_ id=1927218.
Roht–Arriaza, N. 2004. Universal Jurisdiction, Steps Forward, Steps Back. Leiden Journal of International Law, 17, pp. 375-389. Dostupno na: https://repository.uchastings. edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1681&context=faculty_scholarship.
Ryngaert, C. 2010. Complementarity in Universality Cases, Legal Systemic and Legal Policy Consideration, Law. In: Bergsmo, M. (ed.), Complementarity and the Exercise of Universal Jurisdiction for Core International Crimes. Oslo: TOAEP, pp. 165-200.
Smis, S. & Van der Borght, K. 2003. Belgian law concerning the punishment of grave breaches of international humanitarian law. Insights, 8(18). Dostupno na: https:// www.asil.org/insights/volume/8/issue/18/belgian-law-concerning-punishment- grave-breaches-international.
Stojanović, Z. 2016. Univerzalni princip prostornog važenja krivičnog zakonodavstva. Revija za kriminologiju i krivično pravo, 2–3, pp. 21-38.
Zimmermann, A. 2006. Violations of Fundamental Norms of International Law and the Exercise of Universal Jurisdiction in Criminal Matters. In: Tomuschat, C. & Thovenin, JM. (eds.), The Fundamental Rules of the International Legal Order: jus Cogens and Obligations erga Omnes. Leiden: Brill | Nijhoff, pp. 335-353.
Zlatarić, B. 1979. Međunarodno krivično pravo. Zagreb.
Internet izvori
Jeßberger, F. 2007. The Principle of Universal Jurisdiction in German Criminal Law. AIDP’s XVIIIth World Congress. Dostupno na: https://www. jura. uni-hamburg. de/die- fakultaet/professuren/professur-jessberger/forschung/landesberichtjessbericht- jessberger-2007. pdf.
Jeßberger, F. 2018. Towards a ‘complementary preparedness’ approach to universal jurisdiction – recent trends and best practices in the European Union. Dostupno na: https://www.jura.uni-hamburg.de/die-fakultaet/professuren/professur-jessberger/ media-fj/media-forschung-stellungnahmen/briefing-eu-parl-2018.pdf.
Open Society Justice Initiative. 2019. Universal Jurisdiction Law and Practice in Germany. Dostupno na: https://www.justiceinitiative.org/uploads/0b3c66af-68e0-4fd3-a8e0- d938a6e2b43b/universal-jurisdiction-law-and-practice-germany.pdf.
Pravni izvori
Belgium, Law on Universal Jurisdiction, L. 5 August 2003. Dostupno na: https://casebook. icrc.org/case-study/belgium-law-universal-jurisdiction.
Belgium: Act of 1999 Concerning the Punishment of Grave Breaches of International Humanitarian Law (Genocide Act), 10 February 1999. Dostupno na: https://www. refworld.org/docid/3ae6b5934.html.
Contribution, 2016. Contribution of Spain on the topic The scope and application of the principle of universal jurisdiction, 16-05499(E). Dostupno na: https://www.un.org/ en/ga/sixth/71/universal_jurisdiction/spain_e.pdf.
Drucksache 14/ 8524, (Entwurf eines Gesetzes zur Einfûhrung des Völkerstrafgesetzbuch, 13. mart 2002). Dostupno na: https://dip21.bundestag.de/dip21/btd/14/085/1408524. pdf.
Eighteenth International Congress of Penal law (Istanbul, 20 - 27 September 2009). 2015. Revue internationale de droit pénal, 86 (1-2), pp. 421-436. Dostupno na: https:// www.cairn.info/revue-internationale-de-droit-penal-2015-1-page-421.htm.
German Criminal Code, as last amended by the Act of 19. 6. 2019. Dostupno na: https:// www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_stgb/.
German Code of Criminal Procedure, 7. April 1987. Federal Law Gazette, I, p. 1074, 1319, as last amended by Article 3 of the Act of 11 July 2019 (Federal Law Gazette, I, p. 1066). Dostupno na: https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_stpo/ englisch_stpo.html.
Institute of International Law. 2005. Universal criminal jurisdiction with regard to the crime of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes (Rezolucija Instituta za međunarodno pravo o univerzalnoj jurisdikciji u pogledu genocida, zločina protiv čovečnosti i ratnih zločina).
Izveštaj Međunarodne pravne komisije UN. 2014. The obligation to extradite or to prosecute (aut dedere aut judicare), Final Report of the International Law Commission (ICL). Dostupno na: https://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/reports/7_6_2014.pdf. Krivični zakonik, Službeni glasnik RS, br. 85/2005, 88/2005, 107/2005, 72/2009, 111/2009, 121/2012, 104/2013, 108/2014, 94/2016, 35/2019.
Loi Wet Code Penal, 18. Avril 1878. Loi contenant le Titre preliminaire du Code de procedure penale (Prethodni deo Zakona o krivičnom postupku). Konsolidovana verzija dostupna na: http://www.ejustice.just.fgov.be/cgi_loi/ change_lg.pl?language=fr&la=F&cn=1878041701&table_name=loi.
Ujedinjene nacije. Povelja Ujedinjenih nacija, 1945. Dostupno na: http://dag.un.org/ handle/11176/387355.
Povelja o osnovnim pravima Evropske unije (2007/C303/01).
Ujedinjene nacije. 1984. Konvencija UN protiv torture i drugih surovih, neljudskih i ponižavajućih kazni ili postupaka.
Völkerstrafgesetzbuch (VStGB).2002. Dostupno na: https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/ vstgb/.
Zakonik o krivičnom postupku, Službeni glasnik RS, br. 72/2011, 101/2011, 121/2012, 32/2013, 45/2013, 55/2014, 35/2019.
Zakon o organizaciji i nadležnosti državnih organa u postupku za ratne zločine, Službeni glasnik RS, br. 67/2003.
Sudska praksa
Arrest Warrant od 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium), Judgment of 14 February 2002. Dostupno na: https://www.icj-cij.org/en/case/121/judgments.
BGH 2 StR96/14, 18. mart 2015. Dostupno na: https://www.hrr-strafrecht.de/hrr/2/14/2-96 14.php.
Fond za humanitarno pravo (FHP). 2019. FND n.d. Izveštaj o suđenjima za ratne zločine u Srbiji. Beograd. Dostupno na: http://www.hlc-rdc.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/ Izvestaj-o-sudjenjima-za-ratne-zlocine-u-Srbiji.pdf.
European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights e.V. 2019. Survivors of Assad’s torture system demand justice – Criminal complaint in Sweden. Dostupno na: https://www.ecchr.eu/fileadmin/Q_As/Q_A_Sweden_EN_20190812.pdf.
International Criminal Court – ICC 02/05-01/09, Al Bashir Case. Dostupno na: https:// www.icc-cpi.int/darfur/albashir (15.7.2020).
Sharon Trial: 12 February 2003 decision of Belgian Supreme Court explained. Dostupno na: https://electronicintifada.net/content/sharon-trial-12-february-2003-decision- belgian-supreme-court-explained/4413.
Spanish Supreme Court. Guatemala Genocide Case. Presuda No. 327/2003. 25. February 2003. Dostupno na: http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/guatemala/doc/stsgtm.html Constitutional Court. 2005. Guatemala Genocide Case, Presuda No 237/2005, 26 septembar 2005. Dostupno na: https://www.tribunalconstitucional.es/ResolucionesTraduci-das/237-2005,%20of%20September%2026.pdf.
Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012, p. 422. Dostupno na: https://www.icj-cij.org/en/ case/144/judgments.